Military Archaeology
As a result of its central location on the Eastern seaboard many important battles of the nation's 18th and 19th-century wars took place in Pennsylvania. Archaeological investigations have been conducted at a number of forts and battlefields, providing tangible evidence of these battles as well as soldier's lives, physical surroundings, and military organization.
French and Indian War
Several excavations have revealed important information about the French and Indian War. This conflict began in 1754, largely due to competition for control of land and Native American loyalties in the Ohio River Valley. In response to the expansion of the English fur trade into the Ohio Valley, the French built forts on Lake Erie and along the Monongahela River in the 1750s. Forts of this era were usually constructed of log walls enclosing and protecting a number of small cabins. In 1753, the governor of Virginia dispatched a young officer named George Washington to the region to warn the French that they were encroaching on British territory. It was on this trip that Washington's force killed a relative of the commander of the French forces in an ambush at Jumonville Rocks. In retaliation, the French dispatched an overwhelming force that surrounded Washington at Fort Necessity. He had chosen the location of Fort Necessity because of the surrounding open fields, which would supply little protection for the attackers. Strategically, Washington's choice proved in error. Following an eight-hour fight in the rain, the swamp-like ground of the fort filled with water and mud. Yielding to the enemy's position on higher ground, Washington had little choice but to surrender. The date was July 4, 1754.
Archaeology at Fort Necessity has recovered foundations and posts from the fort that remained well-preserved due to the wet conditions in which the fort had been built. Thus archaeology uncovered a further testament to the muddy - and eventually hopeless - conditions under which the Virginians had fought. Most significantly, this engagement commenced the French and Indian War, which spread to Europe as the Seven Years War and evolved into a significant world conflict commonly known as the "War for Empire." In western Pennsylvania, several forts were built throughout the war and the fort at Pittsburgh changed hands numerous times. Eventually, the British prevailed in Western Pennsylvania and built a new fort in Pittsburgh, naming it Fort Pitt. Many other battles of this war were fought in southwestern Pennsylvania, including a decisive battle at Bushy Run Battlefield.
Additional archaeological work at French and Indian War sites in Pennsylvania include Fort Pitt, Fort Loudoun in Franklin county, Fort Augusta in Northumberland County, and Fort LeBoeuf in Erie County. Such investigations have yielded interesting and unique findings.
Fort Loudoun, located fifteen miles west of Chambersburg, was part of a chain of forts authorized and/or built by the British in 1756. No maps or plans of the fort are known to exist and only a few general accounts of its layout have been found. Archaeological investigations conducted by the State Museum of Pennsylvania in 1977 and 1980-82 revealed the postmolds of the stockade including the gate and triangular bastions on each corner. Three buildings, a stone-lined drain, and a stone-lined well were found within the stockade. State Museum archaeologists documented ways in which the site was first used by an English farmer, Matthew Patton, whose house was burned in an early Indian raid, then rebuilt by the British army and utilized as officer's quarters. At the end of the French and Indian War, Patton returned and built a large house that stands on the site today along with the reconstructed fort.
Fort Augusta was built in 1756 at the confluence of the North and West Branches of the Susquehanna River in present-day Sunbury. It was among three forts built along the lower Susquehanna River. The first was a supply fort at Fort Hunter located six miles north of the State Capital at Harrisburg. The second was located at Halifax twenty miles farther upriver. The precise location of these latter two forts has never been documented, although a recent project has been initiated at Fort Hunter to identify the original stockade. Fort Augusta was the largest of Pennsylvania's frontier forts, built to protect British settlers and their Native American allies from attempts by the French to claim the territory. The fort also played a role in the Revolutionary War. Archaeological investigations were conducted in 1938, 1978, 1979, 1981, and 1992 on a portion of the site owned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The work revealed elements of the stockade, officer's quarters, the earthen embankment, and a powder magazine. More information about the archaeological investigations, as well as artifacts recovered from the excavation, can be found in the Northumberland County Historical Society in Sunbury. Most recently, in 2005 and 2006, this society and Kutztown University collaborated in locating the northeast bastion of the fort along with the remnants of a blacksmith shop. The site was also the location of significant prehistoric occupations, buried and preserved beneath the 18th century fort.
Fort Augusta Powder Magazine site, Sunbury
Excavations at French and Indian War-era forts provides important information on building layout and the organization of military activities that is frequently more detailed than drawings and historic documents. The information provides an accurate basis for fort reconstruction. Indeed, archaeological investigations - including those at Fort Loudoun, Fort Ligonier and Fort Necessity - have enabled and informed their reconstructing and accessibility to the public. The excavations also provide information on original methods of construction. For example, a dig at Fort Loudoun revealed that the builders of Pennsylvania's provincial forts possessed unique skills and knowledge regarding fortification design and construction. Moreover, archaeology has revealed that builders adapted to frontier conditions where they were often hampered by the lack of skilled workers and materials.
Revolutionary War
In addition to the French and Indian War, Pennsylvania was central to engagements in the Revolutionary War. The colony provided thirteen regiments to the Continental Army. Its iron furnaces and forges made iron products for cannons and ammunition. German craftsmen in Lancaster, Reading, and Lebanon produced "Pennsylvania rifles," an accurate and historically significant weapon. Philadelphia, the colonial capital, was home to the Continental Congress and witnessed the writing and signing of the Declaration of Independence and, later, the Constitution of the United States.
A major factor in the American Revolution was the struggle for control of Philadelphia. After a fierce and heroic battle around Fort Mifflin (located on the Delaware River near the mouth of the Schuylkill River), the city was captured by the British in September 1777, forcing the Continental Congress to flee to Lancaster. Despite British control of the city, patriots from Pennsylvania maintained possession of their own navy. It consisted of ten ships whose construction was financed by Philadelphia businessmen. During the city's occupation by the British, many merchant ships escaped up the Delaware River to the vicinity of Trenton, New Jersey. However, fearful that the ships would be captured by the British, the navy's financiers petitioned George Washington to scuttle them. Scuttling or intentionally sinking a ship was a common practice of the time and served to protect ships from destruction during warfare. Washington eventually conceded to their demands and Pennsylvania's Navy was scuttled in a small creek south of Trenton. The British immediately marched up-river and sank 44 additional merchant ships. The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission (PHMC) conducted archaeological surveys in 1985 and 1986 to locate the remains of the first "navy." Although the study revealed that all of the ships had been removed, several of the merchant ships burned by the British were indeed located by our survey.
Another Revolutionary War-era archaeological investigation has been conducted at Valley Forge National Historical Park, the locale of the 1777-1778 winter encampment of Washington's army. Washington's forces had retreated from the Battle of Germantown and built a camp of wooden huts with stone fireplaces for the winter at Valley Forge. This famed American story draws attention to the harshness of the soldier's conditions and their fortitude to survive. Indeed, archaeology has revealed that conditions were less than ideal and that supplies were limited. Bones found in cooking hearths confirmed that soldiers were living on soups or stews cooked from low-quality parts of cows and bone marrow. Evidence of wagons likely used to distribute food and supplies to soldiers was also uncovered. Based on excavations conducted by the National Park Service, the cooking areas consisted of well designed, large earthen ovens that are not recorded in the historic record. Despite the hardships, evidence was uncovered of a busy and well-organized army. A camp support area identified in the excavations consisted of a large working area for blacksmiths, tailors, and for food preparation. Three officers' huts containing artifacts such as wine bottles, high-quality tea sets, and cuff links were found, demonstrating lifestyle and status differences between those in command and enlisted men. In sum, archaeology at Valley Forge lends credibility to documented evidence and folklore associated with the everyday life of America's original - and ultimately successful - army.
Excavation of Revolutionary War burials also provides evidence of the hardships encountered by the Continental Army. Skeletal remains uncovered from burial grounds near Bethlehem and in the Philadelphia area, along with coffin nails found at the Bethlehem site, have been analyzed using x-rays and mechanical cleaning to confirm that they were made using eighteenth-century iron-working methods. Moreover, analysis of three skeletons from the same site revealed that they were males between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five. No evidence of trauma was found, and it was concluded that the soldiers likely died of disease. Other burials excavated in the Philadelphia area demonstrate that poor diet, deficient medical treatment, and common diseases were frequent causes of death among these early patriots.
The Civil War
With regard to another major military conflict, the American Civil War, Pennsylvania played a pivotal role. The Commonwealth provided the second largest number of troops to the Union effort, and the Battle of Gettysburg was fought on its soil. Gettysburg represents the northernmost incursion of Confederate troops and marks a turning point in the war. Further, one-third of the Union troops at Gettysburg were Pennsylvanians. The battle began with a skirmish on July 1 and ended on July 3, 1863 with over 45,000 dead or wounded. As part of the Gettysburg campaign, three forts were built on the west shore of the Susquehanna River across from Harrisburg to prevent the Confederates from capturing the capital city. A remnant of one of these forts remains in Lemoyne. Unfortunately, the other two have been lost to contemporary development.
Today Gettysburg is a popular National Military Park and serves as a memorial to those who fell during this historic engagement. Documents, artifacts, and interpretation comprise the central elements of a large visitors' center and Cyclorama, a 360-foot long canvas painting depicting a key engagement, Pickett's Charge. In addition, the grounds are presently being converted to the same condition (in terms of vegetation) as those at the time of the battle, using historic maps and photos as a basis for the reconstruction.
In developing a master plan for the Park, many areas have been archaeologically examined including several farmsteads located on the grounds. The burn layers from the battle revealed in these excavations provide evidence of well-preserved artifacts and are representative of mid-19th century farm life in south central Pennsylvania. Native American artifacts were also discovered at these sites.
Archaeological investigations are routinely conducted in the Park before any ground-disturbing activities occur. For example, archaeological testing for a 16" water line in 1998 included a portion of the field where Pickett's Charge took place. The survey consisted of the excavation of small test pits and the use of a metal detector that identified Civil War ordnance such as artillery shell fragments, iron and lead artillery case balls, and artillery fuses. In addition, in 1996 a skeleton was discovered in an eroding area of railroad line embankment. A study of the bones indicated it was a male between the ages of 20 and 25. Its condition and the presence of a 19th-century glass button indicated the man was a soldier killed by a bullet and buried on the battlefield.
Camp Letterman was established after the Battle of Gettysburg to treat wounded soldiers from both armies. It was the largest field hospital of the Civil War. Dr. Jonathan Letterman, the Medical Director of the Army of the Potomac, faced the enormous task of treating approximately 22,000 casualties. Until Gettysburg, the placement of field hospitals was determined by the location of engagements within the larger battle. The wounded were usually scattered around battlefields in farm houses, tents, and barns. In contrast to this practice, Camp Letterman was planned and designed to provide the most efficient medical care to the wounded and dying. Its location was strategic; a mile-and-a-half east of Gettysburg adjacent to a main road and a rail line, thus enhancing its access to transportation and medical supplies. Developed as a model for all battlefield hospitals, camp officials utilized rail access to transport the wounded to large well-equipped hospitals, including those in and around Washington D. C.
At Camp Letterman, 500 hospital tents were set in rows, each of which had 40 cots. Union and Confederate soldiers were treated with equal care, although Confederate soldiers were transferred to prison camps after treatment. Five months after the battle, the novel field hospital was closed. Although surrounded by modern development, the core of Camp Letterman remains, and preserved buried features have been identified by archaeologists from PHMC. As development pressures abound, local citizens have joined with government organizations to preserve a portion of the site.
In summary, excavations at the forts, battlefields, encampments, and burial grounds related to Pennsylvania's military history provide important information that enhances their interpretation. The physical layouts of forts and encampments have enabled accurate reconstructions, allowing visitors to view and learn from these important sites. Excavations have enriched contemporary understandings of the day-to-day lives of the officers, soldiers, and military life. Although many of these sites have been protected and are open to visitors, pressures from modern development remain a reality.